อย่างไรก็ตาม Daniel R. Schwartzโต้แย้งว่า "ศาสนายูดาย" โดยเฉพาะอย่างยิ่งในบริบทของหนังสือมัคคาบีหมายถึงศาสนา ไม่ใช่วัฒนธรรมและการเมืองของรัฐยูเดีย เขาเชื่อว่ามันสะท้อนถึงการแบ่งแยกทางอุดมการณ์ระหว่างพวกฟาริสีและพวกซัดดูซีและโดยนัยคือกลุ่มต่อต้านราชวงศ์ฮัสโมเนียนและกลุ่มสนับสนุนราชวงศ์ฮัสโมเนียนในสังคมยูเดีย[ 48 ]
ตามพจนานุกรมภาษาอังกฤษของอ็อกซ์ฟอร์ดการอ้างอิงคำนี้ในภาษาอังกฤษที่เก่าแก่ที่สุดคือในหนังสือThe New Chronicles of England and France ของ Robert Fabyan ในปี 1516 ซึ่ง "Judaism" ถูกอธิบายว่าเป็น "การประกอบอาชีพหรือการปฏิบัติศาสนายิว ระบบศาสนาหรือการปกครองของชาวยิว" [ 51 ] "Judaism" ซึ่งเป็นการแปลโดยตรงจากภาษาละตินIudaismusปรากฏครั้งแรกในการแปลภาษาอังกฤษของชาวคริสต์ในปี 1611 ของ 2 Maccabees 2:21: "Those that behaved themselves manfully to their honour for Iudaisme ." [ 52 ]
The role of the priesthood in Judaism has significantly diminished since the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE when priests attended to the Temple and sacrifices. The priesthood is an inherited position, and although priests no longer have any but ceremonial duties, they are still honoured in many Jewish communities. Many Orthodox Jewish communities believe that they will be needed again for a future Third Temple and need to remain in readiness for future duty:
Kohen (priest) – patrilineal descendant of Aaron, brother of Moses. In the Temple, the kohanim were charged with performing the sacrifices. Today, a Kohen is the first one called up at the reading of the Torah, performs the Priestly Blessing, as well as complying with other unique laws and ceremonies, including the ceremony of redemption of the first-born.
Levi (Levite) – Patrilineal descendant of Levi the son of Jacob. In the Temple in Jerusalem, the levites sang Psalms, performed construction, maintenance, janitorial, and guard duties, assisted the priests, and sometimes interpreted the law and Temple ritual to the public. Today, a Levite is called up second to the reading of the Torah.
From the time of the Mishnah and Talmud to the present, Judaism has required specialists or authorities for the practice of very few rituals or ceremonies. A Jew can fulfill most requirements for prayer by himself. Some activities—reading the Torah and haftarah (a supplementary portion from the Prophets or Writings), the prayer for mourners, the blessings for bridegroom and bride, the complete grace after meals—require a minyan, the presence of ten Jews.
The most common professional clergy in a synagogue are:
Rabbi of a congregation – Jewish scholar who is charged with answering the legal questions of a congregation. This role requires ordination by the congregation's preferred authority (i.e., from a respected Orthodox rabbi or, if the congregation is Conservative or Reform, from academic seminaries). A congregation does not necessarily require a rabbi. Some congregations have a rabbi but also allow members of the congregation to act as shatz or baal kriyah (see below).
Hassidic Rebbe – rabbi who is the head of a Hasidic dynasty.
Hazzan (note: the "h" denotes voiceless pharyngeal fricative) (cantor) – a trained vocalist who acts as shatz. Chosen for a good voice, knowledge of traditional tunes, understanding of the meaning of the prayers and sincerity in reciting them. A congregation does not need to have a dedicated hazzan.
Jewish prayer services do involve two specified roles, which are sometimes, but not always, filled by a rabbi or hazzan in many congregations. In other congregations these roles are filled on an ad-hoc basis by members of the congregation who lead portions of services on a rotating basis:
Shaliach tzibur or Shatz (leader—literally "agent" or "representative"—of the congregation) leads those assembled in prayer and sometimes prays on behalf of the community. When a shatz recites a prayer on behalf of the congregation, he is not acting as an intermediary but rather as a facilitator. The entire congregation participates in the recital of such prayers by saying amen at their conclusion; it is with this act that the shatz's prayer becomes the prayer of the congregation. Any adult capable of reciting the prayers clearly may act as shatz. In Orthodox congregations and some Conservative congregations, only men can be prayer leaders, but all Progressive communities now allow women to serve in this function.
The Baal kriyah or baal koreh (master of the reading) reads the weekly Torah portion. The requirements for being the baal kriyah are the same as those for the shatz. These roles are not mutually exclusive. The same person is often qualified to fill more than one role and often does. Often there are several people capable of filling these roles and different services (or parts of services) will be led by each.
Many congregations, especially larger ones, also rely on a:
Gabbai (sexton) – Calls people up to the Torah, appoints the shatz for each prayer session if there is no standard shatz, and makes certain that the synagogue is kept clean and supplied.
The three preceding positions are usually voluntary and considered an honour. Since the Enlightenment large synagogues have often adopted the practice of hiring rabbis and hazzans to act as shatz and baal kriyah, and this is still typically the case in many Conservative and Reform congregations. However, in most Orthodox synagogues these positions are filled by laypeople on a rotating or ad-hoc basis. Although most congregations hire one or more Rabbis, the use of a professional hazzan is generally declining in American congregations, and the use of professionals for other offices is rarer still.
Dayan (judge) – An ordained rabbi with special legal training who belongs to a beth din (rabbinical court). In Israel, religious courts handle marriage and divorce cases, conversion and financial disputes in the Jewish community.
Mohel (circumciser) – An expert in the laws of circumcision who has received training from a previously qualified mohel and performs the brit milah (circumcision).
Shochet (ritual slaughterer) – For meat to be kosher, it must be slaughtered by a shochet who is an expert in the laws of kashrut and has been trained by another shochet.
Sofer (scribe) – Torah scrolls, tefillin (phylacteries), mezuzot (scrolls put on doorposts), and gittin (bills of divorce) must be written by a sofer who is an expert in Hebrew calligraphy and has undergone rigorous training in the laws of writing sacred texts.
Mashgiach/Mashgicha of a yeshiva – Depending on which yeshiva, might either be the person responsible for ensuring attendance and proper conduct, or even supervise the emotional and spiritual welfare of the students and give lectures on mussar (Jewish ethics).
Mashgiach/Mashgicha – Supervises manufacturers of kosher food, importers, caterers and restaurants to ensure that the food is kosher. Must be an expert in the laws of kashrut and trained by a rabbi, if not a rabbi himself or herself.
Historical Jewish groupings (to 1700)
Around the 1st century CE, there were several small Jewish sects: the Pharisees, Sadducees, Zealots, Essenes, and Christians. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, these sects vanished.[15][203] Christianity survived, but by breaking with Judaism and becoming a separate religion; the Pharisees survived but in the form of Rabbinic Judaism (today, known simply as "Judaism").[15] The Sadducees rejected the divine inspiration of the Prophets and the Writings, relying only on the Torah as divinely inspired. Consequently, a number of other core tenets of the Pharisees' belief system (which became the basis for modern Judaism), were also dismissed by the Sadducees. (The Samaritans practiced a similar religion, which is traditionally considered separate from Judaism.)
Like the Sadducees who relied only on the Torah, some Jews in the 8th and 9th centuries rejected the authority and divine inspiration of the oral law as recorded in the Mishnah (and developed by later rabbis in the two Talmuds), relying instead only upon the Tanakh. These included the Isunians, the Yudganites, the Malikites, and others. They soon developed oral traditions of their own, which differed from the rabbinic traditions, and eventually formed the Karaite sect. Karaites exist in small numbers today, mostly living in Israel. Rabbinical and Karaite Jews each hold that the others are Jews, but that the other faith is erroneous.
Over a long time, Jews formed distinct ethnic groups in several different geographic areas—amongst others, the Ashkenazi Jews (of central and Eastern Europe), the Sephardi Jews (of Spain, Portugal, and North Africa), the Beta Israel of Ethiopia, the Yemenite Jews from the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula, and the Malabari and Cochin Jews from Kerala. Many of these groups have developed differences in their prayers, traditions and accepted canons; however, these distinctions are mainly the result of their being formed at some cultural distance from normative (rabbinic) Judaism, rather than based on any doctrinal dispute.
This was different in quality from the repressions of Jews which had occurred in ancient times. Ancient repressions were politically motivated and Jews were treated the same as members of other ethnic groups. With the rise of the Churches, the main motive for attacks on Jews changed from politics to religion and the religious motive for such attacks was specifically derived from Christian views about Jews and Judaism.[204] During the Middle Ages, Jewish people who lived under Muslim rule generally experienced tolerance and integration,[205] but there were occasional outbreaks of violence like Almohad's persecutions.[206]
Hasidism
Hasidic Judaism was founded by Yisroel ben Eliezer (1700–1760), also known as the Ba'al Shem Tov (or Besht). It originated in a time of persecution of the Jewish people when European Jews had turned inward to Talmud study; many felt that most expressions of Jewish life had become too "academic", and that they no longer had any emphasis on spirituality or joy. Its adherents favoured small and informal gatherings called Shtiebel, which, in contrast to a traditional synagogue, could be used both as a place of worship and for celebrations involving dancing, eating, and socializing.[207] Ba'al Shem Tov's disciples attracted many followers; they themselves established numerous Hasidic sects across Europe. Unlike other religions, which typically expanded through word of mouth or by use of print, Hasidism spread largely owing to Tzadiks, who used their influence to encourage others to follow the movement. Hasidism appealed to many Europeans because it was easy to learn, did not require full immediate commitment, and presented a compelling spectacle.[208] Hasidic Judaism eventually became the way of life for many Jews in Eastern Europe. Waves of Jewish immigration in the 1880s carried it to the United States. The movement itself claims to be nothing new, but a refreshment of original Judaism. As some have put it: "they merely re-emphasized that which the generations had lost". Nevertheless, early on there was a serious schism between Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews. European Jews who rejected the Hasidic movement were dubbed by the Hasidim as Misnagdim, (lit.'opponents'). Some of the reasons for the rejection of Hasidic Judaism were the exuberance of Hasidic worship, its deviation from tradition in ascribing infallibility and miracles to their leaders, and the concern that it might become a messianic sect. Over time differences between the Hasidim and their opponents have slowly diminished and both groups are now considered part of Haredi Judaism.
The Enlightenment and new religious movements
In the late 18th century CE, Europe was swept by a group of intellectual, social and political movements known as the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment led to reductions in the European laws that prohibited Jews to interact with the wider secular world, thus allowing Jews access to secular education and experience. A parallel Jewish movement, Haskalah or the "Jewish Enlightenment", began, especially in Central Europe and Western Europe, in response to both the Enlightenment and these new freedoms. It placed an emphasis on integration with secular society and a pursuit of non-religious knowledge through reason. With the promise of political emancipation, many Jews saw no reason to continue to observe halakha and increasing numbers of Jews assimilated into Christian Europe. Modern religious movements of Judaism all formed in reaction to this trend.
In Central Europe, followed by Great Britain and the United States, Reform (or Liberal) Judaism developed, relaxing legal obligations (especially those that limited Jewish relations with non-Jews), emulating Protestant decorum in prayer, and emphasizing the ethical values of Judaism's Prophetic tradition. Modern Orthodox Judaism developed in reaction to Reform Judaism, by leaders who argued that Jews could participate in public life as citizens equal to Christians while maintaining the observance of halakha. Meanwhile, in the United States, wealthy Reform Jews helped European scholars, who were Orthodox in practice but critical (and skeptical) in their study of the Bible and Talmud, to establish a seminary to train rabbis for immigrants from Eastern Europe. These left-wing Orthodox rabbis were joined by right-wing Reform rabbis who felt that halakha should not be entirely abandoned, to form the Conservative movement. Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah formed Haredi Orthodox Judaism. After massive movements of Jews following The Holocaust and the creation of the state of Israel, these movements have competed for followers from among traditional Jews in or from other countries.
Jewish religious practice varies widely through all levels of observance. According to the 2001 edition of the National Jewish Population Survey, in the United States' Jewish community—the world's second largest—4.3 million Jews out of 5.1 million had some sort of connection to the religion.[209] Of that population of connected Jews, 80% participated in some sort of Jewish religious observance, but only 48% belonged to a congregation, and fewer than 16% attend regularly.[210]
Judaism and ecology
Ecological concerns are deeply rooted in the Jewish tradition. The natural world plays a central role in Jewish law, literature, liturgy, and other practices. In Jewish law (halakhah), ecological concerns are reflected in several instances. These include, the Biblical protection for fruit trees, rules in the Mishnah against harming the public domain, Talmudic debate over noise and smoke damages, and contemporary responsa on agricultural pollution.[211] The rule of tza'ar ba'alei hayyim is a restriction on cruelty to animals.[212]
Although the Bible and rabbinic tradition have put Judaism on an anthropocentric path, creation-centered or eco-centric interpretations of Judaism can also be found throughout Jewish history.[213] Many theologians regard the land as a primary partner of Jewish covenant, and Judaism, especially the practices described in the Torah, may be regarded as the expression of a fully indigenous, earth-centered tradition.[214]
Since the 1970s, hundreds of articles and books have been written on the topic of Judaism and environmentalism, and the moral obligation to care for God's Earth and its creatures. The article "Judaism and the Ecological Crisis"[215] and Dr. Eilon Schwartz's "Bal Tashchit: A Jewish Environmental Precept" note about the Jewish concept of Bal Tashchit, which prohibits unnecessary waste and encourages the sustainable use of resources.[216] Dr. Hava Tirosh-Samuelson, in a 2001 essay titled "Nature in the Sources of Judaism", notes how a Jewish perspective on nature is rooted in the belief that the universe is the creation of God.[217]
Scores of books have been published on Jewish teachings and environmental stewardship. Among them are "Eco Bible: Volume 1: An Ecological Commentary on Genesis and Exodus", and "Eco Bible: Volume 2: An Ecological Commentary on Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy".[218]
Christianity was originally a sect of Second Temple Judaism, but the two religions diverged in the first century.[219][220][221] The differences between Christianity and Judaism originally centered on whether Jesus was the Jewish Messiah, but eventually became irreconcilable. Major differences between the two faiths include the nature of the Messiah, of atonement and sin, the status of God's commandments to Israel, and perhaps most significantly, of the nature of God himself. Due to these differences, Judaism traditionally regards Christianity as shituf (שִׁתּוּף, 'association'), or worship of the God of Israel in an incompletely monotheistic manner (e.g., deifying Jesus in addition to the one God). Christianity has traditionally regarded Judaism as obsolete with the invention of Christianity and Jews as a people replaced by the Church. However, a Christian belief in dual-covenant theology emerged as a phenomenon following Christian reflection on how the religion's theology influenced the Holocaust and Nazism.[222]
We decree that no Christian shall use violence to force them to be baptized, so long as they are unwilling and refuse.…Without the judgment of the political authority of the land, no Christian shall presume to wound them or kill them or rob them of their money or change the good customs that they have thus far enjoyed in the place where they live."[223]
Until Jewish emancipation in the late 18th and the 19th century, Jews in Christian lands were subject to humiliating legal restrictions and limitations. They included provisions requiring Jews to wear specific and identifying clothing such as the Jewish hat and the yellow badge, restricting Jews to certain cities and towns or in certain parts of towns (ghettos), and forbidding Jews to enter certain trades (e.g., selling new clothes in medieval Sweden). Disabilities also included special taxes levied on Jews, exclusion from public life, restraints on the performance of religious ceremonies, and linguistic censorship. Some countries went even further and completely expelled Jews—for example, the English Edict of Expulsion in 1290 (Jews were readmitted in 1655) and expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492 (who were readmitted in 1868). The first Jewish settlers in North America arrived in the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam in 1654; they were forbidden to hold public office, open a retail shop, or establish a synagogue. When the colony was seized by the British in 1664, Jewish rights remained unchanged; by 1671, Asser Levy was the first Jew to serve on a jury in North America.[224] In 1791, Revolutionary France was the first country to abolish disabilities altogether, followed by Prussia in 1848. Emancipation of the Jews in the United Kingdom was achieved in 1858 after an almost 30-year struggle championed by Isaac Lyon Goldsmid,[225] with Jews given the right to sit in parliament with the passing of the Jews Relief Act 1858. The newly created German Empire in 1871 abolished Jewish disabilities in Germany, which were reinstated in the Nuremberg Laws in 1935.
Jewish life in Christian lands was marred by blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions, and massacres. Religious prejudice fueled hostility against Jews in Europe. Christian rhetoric and antipathy towards Jews developed in the early years of Christianity and was reinforced by ever-increasing anti-Jewish measures over the ensuing centuries. The action taken by Christians against Jews included acts of violence and murder, culminating in the Holocaust.[226]: 21 [227]: 169 [228] These attitudes were reinforced by Christian preaching, in art and popular teaching for two millennia which expressed contempt for Jews,[229] as well as statutes which were designed to humiliate and stigmatise Jews, such as those of the Judensau motif. The Nazi Party was known for its persecution of Christian churches; many of them, such as the Protestant Confessing Church and the Catholic Church,[230] as well as Quakers and Jehovah's Witnesses, aided and rescued Jews who were being targeted by the antireligious régime.[231]
The attitude of Christians and Christian churches toward the Jewish people and Judaism has changed in a mostly positive direction since World War II. Pope John Paul II and the Catholic Church have "upheld the Church's acceptance of the continuing and permanent election of the Jewish people" as well as a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and the Jews.[232] In December 2015, the Vatican released a 10,000-word document that, among other things, stated that Catholics should work with Jews to fight antisemitism.[233]
Both Judaism and Islam trace their origins to the patriarch Abraham, and they are therefore considered Abrahamic religions. In both Jewish and Muslim tradition, the Jewish and Arab peoples are descended from the two sons of Abraham—Isaac and Ishmael, respectively. While both religions are monotheistic and share many commonalities, they differ based on the fact that Jews do not consider Jesus or Muhammad to be prophets, among many other reasons. The adherents of the religions have interacted with each other since the 7th century, when Islam originated and spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The period under the Ummayad and the Abbasid caliphates between 712 and 1066 has been called the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain. Non-Muslim monotheists living in these countries, including Jews, were known as dhimmis. Dhimmis were allowed to practice their own religions and administer their own internal affairs, but they were subject to certain restrictions that were not imposed on Muslims.[235] For example, they had to pay the jizya, a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males,[235] and they were also forbidden to bear arms or testify in court cases involving Muslims.[236] Many of the laws regarding dhimmis were highly symbolic. For example, dhimmis in some countries were required to wear distinctive clothing, a practice not found in either the Quran or the hadiths but invented in early medievalBaghdad and inconsistently enforced.[237] Jews in Muslim countries were not entirely free from persecution—for example, many were killed, exiled or forcibly converted in the 12th century, in Persia, and by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Al-Andalus,[238] as well as by the Zaydi imams of Yemen in the 17th century (see Mawza Exile). At times, Jews were also restricted in their choice of residence—in Morocco, for example, Jews were confined to walled quarters (mellahs) beginning in the 15th century and increasingly since the early 19th century.[239]
In the mid-20th century, Jews were expelled from nearly all of the Arab countries.[240][241] Most have chosen to live in Israel. Today, antisemitic themes including Holocaust denial have become commonplace in the propaganda of Islamic movements such as Hizbullah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Refah Partisi.[242]
Syncretic movements incorporating Judaism
Some movements in other religions include elements of Judaism. Among Christianity, there are a number of denominations of ancient and contemporary Judaizers. The most well-known of these is Messianic Judaism, a religious movement, which arose in the 1960s,[243][244][245][246] In this, elements of the messianic traditions in Judaism,[247][248] are incorporated in, and melded with the tenets of Christianity.[246][249][250][251][252] The movement generally states that Jesus is the Jewish Messiah, that he is one of the Three Divine Persons,[253][254] and that salvation is only achieved through acceptance of Jesus as one's savior.[255] Some members of Messianic Judaism argue that it is a sect of Judaism.[256] Jewish organizations of every denomination reject this, stating that Messianic Judaism is a Christian sect, because it teaches creeds which are identical to those of Pauline Christianity, and because the conditions for the Messiah to have come accordingly within traditional Jewish thought have not yet been met.[257][258] Another religious movement is the Black Hebrew Israelite group, which not to be confused with less syncretic Black Judaism (a constellation of movements which, depending on their adherence to normative Jewish tradition, receive varying degrees of recognition by the broader Jewish community).
Criticism of Judaism may include those that require revisionism to classical Orthodox Judaism, such as that of the modernized denomination of Reconstructionist Judaism as established by American rabbi Mordecai Kaplan, who believed that classical Orthodox Judaism is outdated as a religious belief on its own, and should represent Judaism as a civilization.[263][264]
On the other hand, some proponents of classical Orthodox Judaism, such as Neturei Karta and similar groups, strongly oppose the growing accommodation to political Zionism by Haredi Jewish groups, such as Agudat Yisrael; a previously anti-Zionist proponent of Orthodox Haredi Judaism whom the Neturei Karta see as betraying Orthodoxy, in the belief that Judaism should never be conflated with the politics of Zionism.[265][266][267]
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^Heribert Busse (1998). Islam, Judaism, and Christianity: Theological and Historical Affiliations. Markus Wiener Publishers. pp. 63–112. ISBN 978-1-55876-144-5.
^Irving M. Zeitlin (2007). The Historical Muhammad. Polity. pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-0-7456-3999-4.
^Cambridge University Historical Series, An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, p.40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era.
^Mendes-Flohr, Paul (2003) [2000]. "Secular Forms of Jewishness". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to Judaism (Reprint ed.). Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publ. pp. 461–476. ISBN 1-57718-058-5. Archived from the original on 10 July 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
^Ackerman, Ari (May 2010). "Eliezer Schweid on the Religious Dimension of a Secular Jewish Renewal". Modern Judaism. 30 (2): 209–228. doi:10.1093/mj/kjq005. ISSN 0276-1114. JSTOR 40604707. S2CID 143106665.
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^See, for example, Deborah Dash Moore, American Jewish Identity Politics, University of Michigan Press, 2008, p. 303; Ewa Morawska, Insecure Prosperity: Small-Town Jews in Industrial America, 1890–1940, Princeton University Press, 1999. p. 217; Peter Y. Medding, Values, interests and identity: Jews and politics in a changing world, Volume 11 of Studies in contemporary Jewry, Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 64; Ezra Mendelsohn, People of the city: Jews and the urban challenge, Volume 15 of Studies in contemporary Jewry, Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 55; L. Sandy Maisel, Ira Forman, eds., Jews in American politics: essays, Rowman & Littlefield, 2004, p. 158; Seymour Martin Lipset, American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword, W.W. Norton & Company, 1997, p. 169.
^Ernest Krausz; Gitta Tulea (1997). Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; [... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997]. Transaction Publishers. pp. 90–. ISBN 978-1-4128-2689-1. "A person born Jewish who refutes Judaism may continue to assert a Jewish identity, and if he or she does not convert to another religion, even religious Jews will recognize the person as a Jew"
^Mason, Steve (August 2009). "Methods and Categories: Judaism and Gospel". bibleinterp.arizona.edu. Archived from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2018.
^ abSchwartz, Daniel R. (2021). "Judea versus Judaism: Between 1 and 2 Maccabees". TheTorah.com. Archived from the original on 16 March 2024.
^ abSkarsaune, Oskar (2002). In the Shadow of the Temple: Jewish Influences on Early Christianity. InterVarsity Press. pp. 39ff. ISBN 978-0-8308-2670-4. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
^Shaye J.D. Cohen 1999 The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties University of California Press. 105–106
^"He anon renouncyd his Iudaisme or Moysen Lawe, And was cristenyd, and lyued after as a Cristen Man." (Robert Fabian, New Chronicles of England and France, reprint London 1811, p. 334.)
^"An in depth summary and analysis of Abraham and the Covenant of Circumcision, Genesis, Chapter 17". Scripture Insight. Retrieved 17 December 2024.
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^"The Tanakh: The Jewish Bible | Religions Facts". 23 February 2024. Archived from the original on 19 December 2024. Retrieved 17 December 2024.
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^ abWilhelm Bacher. "Talmud". Jewish Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 16 September 2015.
^Broshi, Maguen (2001). Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-84127-201-6. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023.
^Robin, Christian Julien (2021). "Judaism in pre-Islamic Arabia". In Ackerman-Lieberman, Phillip Isaac (ed.). The Cambridge history of Judaism. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. ISBN 978-0-521-51717-1.
^Sarna, Nahum M. (1966). Understanding Genesis. Schocken Books. pp. 9–10, 14. ISBN 978-0-8052-0253-3. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
^Neusner, Jacob (2003). "Defining Judaism". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan (eds.). The Blackwell companion to Judaism. Blackwell. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-57718-059-3. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
^Gen. 17:3–8Genesis 17: 3–8: Abram fell facedown, and God said to him, "As for me, this is my covenant with you: You will be the father of many nations. No longer will you be called Abram; your name will be Abraham, for I have made you a father of many nations. I will make you very fruitful; I will make nations of you, and kings will come from you. I will establish my covenant as an everlasting covenant between me and you and your descendants after you for the generations to come, to be your God and the God of your descendants after you. The whole land of Canaan, where you are now an alien, I will give as an everlasting possession to you and your descendants after you; and I will be their God;" Gen. 22:17–18 Genesis 22: 17–18: I will surely bless you and make your descendants as numerous as the stars in the sky and as the sand on the seashore. Your descendants will take possession of the cities of their enemies, and through your offspring, all nations on earth will be blessed, because you have obeyed me."
^Exodus 20:3 "You shall have no other gods before me; Deut. 6:5Deuteronomy 6:5 "Love the LORD your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength."
^Lev. 19:18Leviticus 19:18: "'Do not seek revenge or bear a grudge against one of your people, but love your neighbor as yourself. I am the Lord"
^Kadushin, Max, 1972 The Rabbinic Mind. New York: Bloch Publishing Company. p. 194
^Kadushin, Max, 1972 The Rabbinic Mind. New York: Bloch Publishing Company. p. 203
^The Books of Melachim (Kings) and Book of Yeshaiahu (Isaiah) in the Tanakh contain a few of the many Biblical accounts of Israelite kings and segments of ancient Israel's population worshiping other gods. For example: King Solomon's "wives turned away his heart after other gods…[and he] did that which was evil in the sight of the LORD, and went not fully after the LORD" (elaborated in 1 Melachim 11:4–10); King Ahab "went and served Baal, and worshiped him…And Ahab made the Asherah [a pagan place of worship]; and Ahab did yet more to provoke the LORD, the God of Israel, than all the kings of Israel that were before him" (1 Melachim 16:31–33); the prophet Isaiah condemns the people who "prepare a table for [the idol] Fortune, and that offer mingled wine in full measure unto [the idol] Destiny" (Yeshaiahu 65:11–12). Translation: JPS (Jewish Publication Society) edition of the Tanakh, from 1917, available at Mechon MamreArchived 12 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
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^Ronald L. Eisenberg (2004). The JPS guide to Jewish traditions. Jewish Publication Society. p. 509. ISBN 978-0-8276-0760-6. The concept of "dogma" is…not a basic idea in Judaism.
^Dogma in Medieval Jewish Thought, Menachem Kellner.
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^Neusner, Jacob 2003 Invitation to the Talmud Stipf and Son, Oregon xvii–xxii
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^Stern, David "Midrash and Indeterminacy" in Critical Inquiry, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Autumn, 1988), p. 147.
^Cohen, Abraham 1949 Everyman's Talmud New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. xxiv; Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95
^Cohen, Abraham 1949 Everyman's Talmud New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. xxiv; Steinsaltz, Adin 1976 The Essential Talmud New Yorki: Basic Books. 222; Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95
^Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. p. 95
^סדור רינת ישראל לבני חוײל Jerusalem: 1974, pp. 38–39
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^Jewish life in WWII EnglandArchived 2 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine: "there was a…special dispensation…that allowed Jews serving in the armed services to eat "non-kosher" when no Jewish food was available; that deviation from halacha was allowed 'in order to save a human life including your own.'"
^Y. Lichtenshtein M.A. "Weekly Pamphlet #805". Bar-Ilan University, Faculty of Jewish Studies, Rabbinical office. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2009. …certain prohibitions become allowed without a doubt because of lifethreatening circumstances, like for example eating non-kosher food
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^Feher, Shoshanah. Passing over Easter: Constructing the Boundaries of Messianic Judaism, Rowman Altamira, 1998, ISBN 978-0-7619-8953-0, p. 140. "This interest in developing a Jewish ethnic identity may not be surprising when we consider the 1960s, when Messianic Judaism arose."
^Ariel, Yaakov (2006). "Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism". In Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael (eds.). Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. Vol. 2. Westport, CN: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-275-98714-5. LCCN 2006022954. OCLC 315689134. In the late 1960s and 1970s, both Jews and Christians in the United States were surprised to see the rise of a vigorous movement of Jewish Christians or Christian Jews.
^Ariel, Yaakov (2006). "Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism". In Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael (eds.). Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. Vol. 2. Westport, CN: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-275-98714-5. LCCN 2006022954. OCLC 315689134. The Rise of Messianic Judaism. In the first phase of the movement, during the early and mid-1970s, Jewish converts to Christianity established several congregations at their own initiative. Unlike the previous communities of Jewish Christians, Messianic Jewish congregations were largely independent of control from missionary societies or Christian denominations, even though they still wanted the acceptance of the larger evangelical community.
^ abMelton, J. Gordon, ed. (2005). "Messianic Judaism". Encyclopedia of Protestantism. Encyclopedia of World Religions. New York: Facts On File. p. 373. ISBN 0-8160-5456-8. Messianic Judaism is a Protestant movement that emerged in the last half of the 20th century among believers who were ethnically Jewish but had adopted an Evangelical Christian faith.…By the 1960s, a new effort to create a culturally Jewish Protestant Christianity emerged among individuals who began to call themselves Messianic Jews.
^Vittorio Lanternari'Messianism: Its Historical Origin and Morphology,'Archived 21 April 2021 at the Wayback MachineHistory of Religions Vol. 2, No. 1 (Summer, 1962), pp. 52–72:'the same messianic complex which originated in Judaism and was confirmed in Christianity.' p. 53
^Michael L. Morgan, Steven Weitzman, (eds.,) Rethinking the Messianic Idea in Judaism,Archived 10 February 2023 at the Wayback MachineIndiana University Press 2014 ISBN 978-0-253-01477-1 p. 1. Gershom Scholem considered 'the messianic dimensions of the Kabbalah and of rabbinic Judaism as a central feature of a Jewish philosophy of history.'
^Ariel, Yaakov (2006). "Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism". In Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael (eds.). Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. Vol. 2. Westport, CN: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-275-98714-5. LCCN 2006022954. OCLC 315689134. While Christianity started in the first century of the Common Era as a Jewish group, it quickly separated from Judaism and claimed to replace it; ever since the relationship between the two traditions has often been strained. But in the twentieth century groups of young Jews claimed that they had overcome the historical differences between the two religions and amalgamated Jewish identity and customs with the Christian faith.
^Ariel, Yaakov (2006). "Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism". In Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael (eds.). Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. Vol. 2. Westport, CN: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 194–195. ISBN 978-0-275-98714-5. LCCN 2006022954. OCLC 315689134. When the term resurfaced in Israel in the 1940s and 1950s, it designated all Jews who accepted Christianity in its Protestant evangelical form. Missionaries such as the Southern Baptist Robert Lindsey noted that for Israeli Jews, the term nozrim, "Christians" in Hebrew, meant, almost automatically, an alien, hostile religion. Because such a term made it nearly impossible to convince Jews that Christianity was their religion, missionaries sought a more neutral term, one that did not arouse negative feelings. They chose Meshichyim, Messianic, to overcome the suspicion and antagonism of the term nozrim. Meshichyim as a term also had the advantage of emphasizing messianism as a major component of the Christian evangelical belief that the missions and communities of Jewish converts to Christianity propagated. It conveyed the sense of a new, innovative religion rather that [sic] an old, unfavorable one. The term was used in reference to those Jews who accepted Jesus as their personal savior, and did not apply to Jews accepting Roman Catholicism who in Israel have called themselves Hebrew Christians. The term Messianic Judaism was adopted in the United States in the early 1970s by those converts to evangelical Christianity who advocated a more assertive attitude on the part of converts towards their Jewish roots and heritage.
^Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (2000). "Messianic Jewish mission". Messianic Judaism. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-8264-5458-4. OCLC 42719687. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 10 August 2010. Evangelism of the Jewish people is thus at the heart of the Messianic movement.
^Ariel, Yaakov S. (2000). "Chapter 20: The Rise of Messianic Judaism". Evangelizing the chosen people: missions to the Jews in America, 1880–2000. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 223. ISBN 978-0-8078-4880-7. OCLC 43708450. Retrieved 10 August 2010. Messianic Judaism, although it advocated the idea of an independent movement of Jewish converts, remained the offspring of the missionary movement, and the ties would never be broken. The rise of Messianic Judaism was, in many ways, a logical outcome of the ideology and rhetoric of the movement to evangelize the Jews as well as its early sponsorship of various forms of Hebrew Christian expressions. The missions have promoted the message that Jews who had embraced Christianity were not betraying their heritage or even their faith but were actually fulfilling their true Jewish selves by becoming Christians. The missions also promoted the dispensationalist idea that the Church equals the body of the true Christian believers and that Christians were defined by their acceptance of Jesus as their personal Savior and not by their affiliations with specific denominations and particular liturgies or modes of prayer. Missions had been using Jewish symbols in their buildings and literature and called their centers by Hebrew names such as Emanuel or Beth Sar Shalom. Similarly, the missions' publications featured Jewish religious symbols and practices such as the lighting of a menorah. Although missionaries to the Jews were alarmed when they first confronted the more assertive and independent movement of Messianic Judaism, it was they who were responsible for its conception and indirectly for its birth. The ideology, rhetoric, and symbols they had promoted for generations provided the background for the rise of a new movement that missionaries at first rejected as going too far but later accepted and even embraced.
^"What are the Standards of the UMJC?". Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations. June 1998. Archived from the original on 20 October 2015. Retrieved 3 May 2015. 1. We believe the Bible is the inspired, the only infallible, authoritative Word of G-d.2. We believe that there is one G-d, eternally existent in three persons, Father, Son and Holy Spirit.3. We believe in the deity of the L-RD Yeshua, the Messiah, in His virgin birth, in His sinless life, in His miracles, in His vicarious and atoning death through His shed blood, in His bodily resurrection, in His ascension to the right hand of the Father, and in His personal return in power and glory.
^Israel b. Betzalel (2009). "Trinitarianism". JerusalemCouncil.org. Archived from the original on 27 April 2009. Retrieved 3 July 2009. This then is who Yeshua is: He is not just a man, and as a man, he is not from Adam, but from God. He is the Word of HaShem, the Memra, the Davar, the Righteous One, he didn't become righteous, he is righteous. He is called God's Son, he is the agent of HaShem called HaShem, and he is "HaShem" who we interact with and not die.
^"Do I need to be Circumcised?". JerusalemCouncil.org. 10 February 2009. Archived from the original on 6 August 2010. Retrieved 18 August 2010. To convert to the Jewish sect of HaDerech, accepting Yeshua as your King is the first act after one's heart turns toward HaShem and His Torah—as one can not obey a commandment of God if they first do not love God, and we love God by following his Messiah. Without first accepting Yeshua as the King and thus obeying Him, then getting circumcised for the purpose of Jewish conversion only gains you access to the Jewish community. It means nothing when it comes to inheriting a place in the World to Come....Getting circumcised apart from desiring to be obedient to HaShem, and apart from accepting Yeshua as your King, is nothing but a surgical procedure, or worse, could lead to you believe that Jewish identity grants you a portion in the World to Come—at which point, what good is Messiah Yeshua, the Word of HaShem to you? He would have died for nothing!...As a convert from the nations, part of your obligation in keeping the Covenant, if you are a male, is to get circumcised in fulfillment of the commandment regarding circumcision. Circumcision is not an absolute requirement of being a Covenant member (that is, being made righteous before HaShem, and thus obtaining eternal life), but it is a requirement of obedience to God's commandments, because circumcision is commanded for those who are of the seed of Abraham, whether born into the family, adopted, or converted....If after reading all of this you understand what circumcision is, and that is an act of obedience, rather than an act of gaining favor before HaShem for the purpose of receiving eternal life, then if you are male believer in Yeshua the Messiah for the redemption from death, the consequence of your sin of rebellion against Him, then pursue circumcision, and thus conversion into Judaism, as an act of obedience to the Messiah.
^"Jewish Conversion – Giyur". JerusalemCouncil.org. 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2009. We recognize the desire of people from the nations to convert to Judaism, through HaDerech (The Way)(Messianic Judaism), a sect of Judaism.
^Moss, Aron. "Can a Jew believe in Jesus?". Archived from the original on 10 October 2023. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
Simmons, Shraga (9 May 2009). "Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus". aishcom. Aish HaTorah. Archived from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2010. Jews do not accept Jesus as the messiah because:#Jesus did not fulfill the messianic prophecies. #Jesus did not embody the personal qualifications of the Messiah. #Biblical verses "referring" to Jesus are mistranslations. #Jewish belief is based on national revelation.
Waxman, Jonathan (2006). "Messianic Jews Are Not Jews". United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism. Archived from the original on 28 June 2006. Retrieved 14 February 2007. Hebrew Christian, Jewish Christian, Jew for Jesus, Messianic Jew, Fulfilled Jew. The name may have changed over the course of time, but all of the names reflect the same phenomenon: one who asserts that s/he is straddling the theological fence between Christianity and Judaism, but in truth is firmly on the Christian side.…we must affirm as did the Israeli Supreme Court in the well-known Brother Daniel case that to adopt Christianity is to have crossed the line out of the Jewish community.
"Missionary Impossible". Hebrew Union College. 9 August 1999. Archived from the original on 28 September 2006. Retrieved 14 February 2007. Missionary Impossible, an imaginative video and curriculum guide for teachers, educators, and rabbis to teach Jewish youth how to recognize and respond to "Jews-for-Jesus," "Messianic Jews," and other Christian proselytizers, has been produced by six rabbinic students at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion's Cincinnati School. The students created the video as a tool for teaching why Jewish college and high school youth and Jews in intermarried couples are primary targets of Christian missionaries.
"FAQ's About Jewish Renewal". Aleph.org. 2007. Archived from the original on 23 October 2014. Retrieved 20 December 2007. What is ALEPH's position on so called messianic Judaism? ALEPH has a policy of respect for other spiritual traditions, but objects to deceptive practices and will not collaborate with denominations which actively target Jews for recruitment. Our position on so-called "Messianic Judaism" is that it is Christianity and its proponents would be more honest to call it that.
^Raphael, Melissa (April 1998). "Goddess Religion, Postmodern Jewish Feminism, and the Complexity of Alternative Religious Identities". Nova Religio. 1 (2): 198–215. doi:10.1525/nr.1998.1.2.198. Archived from the original on 17 July 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
^Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (2010). "Jewish Buddhists". Judaism Today. London; New York: Continuum. pp. 98–100. ISBN 978-0-8264-3829-4. Archived from the original on 28 June 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
^Myers, Jody Elizabeth (2007). Kabbalah and the spiritual quest: the Kabbalah Centre in America. Westport, Conn: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98940-8.
^Dawkins, Richard (11 May 2024). The God delusion. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 37, 245. ISBN 978-0-618-68000-9.
^Seeman, Isadore. "Reconstructionist Judaism". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 24 April 2024. Retrieved 23 April 2024. In the 1930s Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan recognized that many Jews were losing interest in religious observance, except perhaps for the high holidays. As a cogent philosopher and the leader of a congregation in New York, Rabbi Kaplan began to evolve a fresh approach to Jewish belief and practice... The essence of Reconstructionism is that Judaism is not just a religion but an evolving religious civilization. Reconstructionists believe in the importance of music, art, dance, the Hebrew language, a dedication to the State of Israel and a sense of Jewish peoplehood...
^"Neturei Karta". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 8 April 2024. Neturei Karta (Aramaic: "Guardians of the City") is a group of Orthodox Jews which rejects Zionism and the establishment of the State of Israel. They believe that the true Israel can only be reestablished with the coming of the Messiah.
^Harb, Ali. "'Anti-Zionism is antisemitism,' US House asserts in 'dangerous' resolution". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 8 April 2024. In the US, Palestinian rights supporters have long rejected conflations of Zionism with Judaism, noting that many Jewish Americans identify as anti-Zionist. "Opposing the policies of the government of Israel and Netanyahu's extremism is not antisemitic. Speaking up for human rights and a ceasefire to save lives should never be condemned," Palestinian American Congresswoman Rashida Tlaib said in a social media post on Tuesday, explaining her vote against the resolution.
^Santos, Fernanda (15 January 2007). "New York Rabbi Finds Friends in Iran and Enemies at Home". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 8 April 2024. ... Rabbi Yisroel Dovid Weiss, spokesman and assistant director of a small anti-Zionist group with a foothold in this town in Rockland County, home to one of the nation's largest communities of Hasidic Jews... "we had to let the world know, especially the Arab world and the Muslim world, that we are not their enemies," he said in an interview, a Palestinian flag with the phrase "A Jew Not a Zionist," written in Hebrew, English and Arabic pinned to the lapel of his coat...
^"Yeshayahu Leibowitz: Idol smasher or idol maker?". The Jerusalem Post. 22 June 2019. ISSN 0792-822X. Retrieved 13 May 2024. Smashing idols was Leibowitz's mission. And there were many idols to smash: Reform Judaism, Jewish nationalism, Kabbalah, the mystical and messianic insights of Religious Zionism's Abraham Isaac Kook, the notion that the mitzvot are grounded in moral principles.
^Greenberg, Joel (19 August 1994). "Yeshayahu Leibowitz, 91, Iconoclastic Israeli Thinker". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 13 May 2024. A staunch believer in the separation of state from religion, he argued that the blend of religion and politics in Israel corrupted the faith... He taught at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem for 36 years, lecturing in biochemistry, neurophysiology, philosophy and the history of science... A volume of his work was published in English under the title "Judaism, Human Values and the Jewish State" by Harvard University Press in 1992.
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Bibliography
Selected cited works
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Yaron, Y.; Pessah, Joe; Qanaï, Avraham; El-Gamil, Yosef (2003). An Introduction to Karaite Judaism: History, Theology, Practice and Culture. Albany, NY: Qirqisani Center. ISBN 978-0-9700775-4-7.
Zohar, Zion, ed. (2005). Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewry: From the Golden Age of Spain to Modern Times. New York; London: NYU Press. ISBN 0-8147-9705-9.
Further reading
Encyclopedias
Berlin, Adele, ed. (2011). The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion (2nd ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-975927-9.
Jacobs, Louis (2003). A Concise Companion to the Jewish Religion(Online Version). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-172644-6.
Karesh, Sara E.; Hurvitz, Mitchell M. (2005). Encyclopedia of Judaism. Encyclopedia of World Religions. J. Gordon Melton, Series Editor. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 0-8160-5457-6.
Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J.; Green, William Scott, eds. (1999). The Encyclopedia of Judaism. Vol. 1–3. Leiden; New York: Brill; Continuum. ISBN 978-90-04-10583-6.
Neusner, Jacob (2000). The Halakhah: An Encyclopaedia of the Law of Judaism. The Brill Reference Library of Judaism. Vol. 1–5. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-11617-6.
Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (2004). The Routledge Dictionary of Judaism(e-Book). New York; London: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-63391-1.
Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (2003). Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23660-6.
Dosick, Wayne (2007). Living Judaism: The Complete Guide to Jewish Belief, Tradition and Practice. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-062179-7.
Jacobs, Louis (1995). The Jewish Religion: A Companion. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826463-1. OCLC 31938398.
de Lange, Nicholas (2002) [2000]. An Introduction to Judaism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-46073-5.
Neusner, Jacob (1991). An Introduction to Judaism: A Textbook and Reader. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster/John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-25348-2.
Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J., eds. (2003) [2000]. The Blackwell Companion to Judaism (Reprint ed.). Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publ. ISBN 1-57718-058-5.
Segal, Eliezer (2008). Judaism: The e-Book. State College, Pa: Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online Books. ISBN 978-09801633-1-5.
Wertheimer, Jack, ed. (1993). The Modern Jewish Experience: A Reader's Guide. New York; London: NYU Press. ISBN 0-8147-9261-8.
Regional contemporary
Deshen, Shlomo; Liebman, Charles S.; Shokeid, Moshe, eds. (2017) [1995]. Israeli Judaism: The Sociology of Religion in Israel. Studies of Israeli Society, 7 (Reprint ed.). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-56000-178-2.
Liebman, Charles S.; Cohen, Steven Martin (1990). Two Worlds of Judaism: The Israeli and American Experiences. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04726-4.
Raphael, Marc Lee (2003). Judaism in America. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-12060-5.
Rebhum, Uzi (2016). Jews and the American Religious Landscape. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-17826-6.
Wertheimer, Jack (2018). The New American Judaism: How Jews Practice Their Religion Today. Princeton, NJ; Oxford: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-18129-5.
External links
Judaism at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
Travel information from Wikivoyage
General
Jacobs, Louis (2003). A Concise Companion to the Jewish Religion (Online ed.). Oxford Reference. ISBN 978-0-19-280088-6.
Neusner, Jacob; et al. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Judaism Online.
About JudaismArchived 10 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine by Dotdash (formerly About.com)
Shamash's Judaism and Jewish Resources
Orthodox
Aish HaTorah
Chabad
Ohr Somayach
Orthodox Judaism – The Orthodox Union
Rohr Jewish Learning Institute
The Various Types of Orthodox JudaismArchived 3 November 2005 at the Wayback Machine
Traditional/Conservadox
Union for Traditional Judaism
Conservative
The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
Masorti (Conservative) Movement in Israel
United Synagogue Youth
Reform/Progressive
The Union for Reform Judaism (USA)
Reform Judaism (UK)
Liberal Judaism (UK)
World Union for Progressive Judaism (Israel)
Reconstructionist
Jewish Reconstructionist Federation
Renewal
ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal
OHALAH Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal
Humanistic
Society for Humanistic Judaism
Karaite
World Movement for Karaite Judaism
Jewish religious literature and texts
Complete TanakhArchived 20 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine (in Hebrew, with vowels).
Parallel Hebrew-English TanakhArchived 10 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
English TanakhArchived 12 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine from the 1917 Jewish Publication Society version.
Torah.org (also known as Project Genesis) – contains Torah commentaries and studies of Tanakh, along with Jewish ethics, philosophy, holidays and other classes.
The complete formatted Talmud online – audio files of lectures for each page from an Orthodox viewpoint are provided in French, English, Yiddish and Hebrew. Reload the page for an image of a page of the Talmud.
See also Torah database for links to more Judaism e-texts.
Wikimedia Torah study projects Text study projects at Wikisource. In many instances, the Hebrew versions of these projects are more fully developed than the English.
Mikraot Gedolot (Rabbinic Bible) in Hebrew(sample) and English(sample).
Cantillation at the "Vayavinu Bamikra" Project in Hebrew (lists nearly 200 recordings) and English.
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Kohler, Kaufmann (1901–1906). "Judaism". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
Travel information from Wikivoyage
